PAVEL ČERNÝ

The Reformation started in Bohemia—with Moravia, a region forming the present-day Czech Republic—more than one hundred years before it began in the other countries of Europe. More typically considered the initiator of the Protestant Reformation, Martin Luther admitted he held the teachings of his Bohemian predecessor, Jan Hus (c. 1372-1415). “In short, we were all Hussites without knowing it,” Luther wrote in 1520. His prominent adversary, Dr. Johann Eck, likewise characterized Luther’s position of attaching more weight to his own Scriptural interpretation than to that of senior clerics as “the Bohemian virus.” However, the “First Reformation” of Jan Hus differed markedly from the “Second Reformation” of Martin Luther. The latter was more developed theologically on dogmatic questions such as justification by faith. It was also heavily backed by the German-speaking nobility, who even saved Luther’s life by sheltering him at Wartburg Castle in Thuringia. Luther’s Reformation would adopt a strategy expressed by the Latin phrase Cuius regio, eius religio (literally, “Whose realm, their religion.”) This meant, for example, that if the ruler of Prussia was Protestant, all the people in Prussia had no choice but to be Protestant. The Hussite “First Reformation,” by contrast, was far more considerate of personal freedom— individuals could choose if they wished to be Protestant or Catholic. It was also more of a grassroots movement, with greater involvement by the laity, and sensitivity towards social questions. 

Local revival

The Bethlehem Chapel in Prague symbolizes the early beginnings of this “First Reformation.” Founded in 1391, it was designed with the express purpose of preaching in the language of the people, having no facility for sacramental ministry. Such an idea originated with a local revival movement whose spokesman was Jan Milíč of Kroměříž (d. 1374). A Catholic priest, he was convinced of the vital necessity of preaching the Word of God in the vernacular. Alongside a refuge for former prostitutes called New Jerusalem, Milíč established a school in Prague for laymen who wished to become preachers. He also often preached for Emperor Charles IV—a devout ruler who liked to invite influential preachers to Prague, at that time the seat of the Holy Roman Empire. Matěj of Janov (d. 1393)—a pupil of Jan Milíč—further developed the movement through biblical scholarship, and it was his followers who built the Bethlehem Chapel. The Chapel was able to accommodate over 2,000 people—a significant proportion of Prague’s then total population of some 30,000.

Preaching in Czech

Around this time Czech students returning from their studies at Oxford University brought writings by the prominent radical English theologian John Wycliffe, who completed the first translation of the Bible into English in 1382. Wycliffe’s writings influenced Jan Hus—Prague archives contain Wycliffe manuscripts on which Hus has made notes in both Latin and Czech.  

From 1402 onward, Jan Hus preached in Czech at the Bethlehem Chapel, whereas Latin was the rule in other local churches. Such a development was possible because Hus was on friendly terms with the then ruler of Bohemia, King Wenceslaus IV, and his queen, Sophia, who attended Hus’s services quite often. The Bethlehem Chapel rapidly became the center of Reformation activity in Bohemia. Here, Hus worked on the second edition of the Czech Bible from 1406 through 1413. 

Parts of the Bible had in fact already been translated into the local vernacular. In the 9th century the Byzantine missionaries Cyril and Methodius came to present-day Czech territory, where they translated the Gospels into the old Slavonic language and developed the Glagolitic alphabet to transcribe it. There may have been residual memory of this non-Latin usage in the 14th century, supporting the desire for reform. One Catholic monastery in Prague retained Slavonic services— sometimes in secret, as Latin was the rule under Rome. 

[Editor’s note: Prague’s Emmaus Monastery was founded by Charles IV in 1347 for Benedictine monks who worshipped using the Roman Catholic Rite but in Church Slavonic. A fragment of an Old Czech wall inscription of the Ten Commandments in Glagolitic script survives at the monastery. Catholic priest Fr. Tomáš Petráček noted to the editor of the East-West Church Report in late 2019 that the Hussites “played with these Slavonic origins… they were looking for allies. They sent an envoy to Constantinople, but it did not work out.” This envoy, who was warmly received by Orthodox clerics in Constantinople shortly before Byzantium’s fall to the Ottomans in 1453, appears to have been a prominent Prague Hussite originally from England, Peter Payne. (See Robin Baker, “‘Constantine From England and the Bohemians’: Hussitism, Orthodoxy, and the End of Byzantium,” Central Europe 5, no. 1 (2007), 23-46.)]

Four demands

Following papal anathema and excommunication from the Catholic Church, Jan Hus was burned at the stake in 1415. Notably, however, the Hussite movement’s four principal demands in the Prague Articles of 1419 did not challenge core Catholic doctrine:

1. The Word of God shall be freely proclaimed and preached without impediment in the Kingdom of Bohemia.
2. The sacrament of the body and blood of Christ shall be freely administered to all the faithful in the two kinds— that is, in bread and wine—according to the order and teachings of Christ.
3. All worldly rule is to be rescinded from priests and the Church returned to its apostolic poverty, and so to its special mission of bearing witness to the Gospel. 
4.  All mortal sins—particularly those that are public—and loose living are to be prosecuted and punished, regardless of whether master or servant is guilty.

The revolutionary emphasis here was rather upon social justice and freedom for preaching the Word of God. At this time, clergy implicated in crimes were not exposed to punishment—unlike the laity—and the Hussites wanted the Church to affirm that ecclesiastical figures would also be subject to civil justice. Their movement grew quickly, especially when compared with that of Luther, who had the advantage of being able to print books and pamphlets. In Hus’s time, everything had to be written by hand. 

Different streams of practice soon developed in Hussitism. In 1420 Hus’s most radical followers founded the town of Tábor in southern Bohemia, named after Mount Tabor in Galilee. There, they wished to create something akin to the Kingdom of God, with everyone giving their money and possessions for common use in a form of Christian commune. Even some nobles gave up great wealth to join them. The Taborites were radical liturgically as well as economically— their priests served in ordinary clothes rather than ornate vestments, for example. 

The Taborites won many battles under the leadership of an extraordinary commander, Jan Žižka, who was never beaten despite crusades sent out by the Pope and Emperor after 1420. Following a split in the Czech Reformation, the radical Taborites were defeated at Lipany in 1434 by the moderate Utraquists and some Catholics. The Utraquists—so named due to their emphasis upon the principle of communion being offered to the laity in two kinds (Latin: sub utraque specie)— reached an accommodation with the Catholic Church. The legacy of the Czech Reformation then passed to the Unity of the Brethren or Unitas Fratrum, which was established in 1457. By 1467, this body needed new priests. After prayer and fasting they decided to consecrate their own, without the approval of Roman Catholic bishops. The first three priests were selected simply by drawing lots—to the Unity of the Brethren, their practice of sharing the communion chalice among all participants symbolized the priesthood of all believers. 

Unity of the Brethren

The leading theologian in this early phase of the Unity of the Brethren’s development was Lukáš of Prague (1458-1528). Writing before Luther—with whom he later corresponded— Lukáš developed the Unity’s theological teaching and ethics. He rejected the Catholic understanding of transubstantiation, for example, while believing in the real spiritual presence of Christ in the Eucharist. He also maintained that government should not interfere in church affairs. 

The Unity of the Brethren welcomed the Lutheran Reformation of the early 1500s without losing their own special character. This “Second Reformation” strongly influenced the Utraquists, so that the Czech lands were overwhelmingly Protestant by the end of that century. In 1575 the Unity of the Brethren and the Utraquists reached a consensus in the joint Bohemian Confession of Faith. Their freedom to worship was reinforced in 1609, when Holy Roman Emperor Rudolph II granted religious toleration to Bohemia in his “Letter of Majesty.” 

This considerable degree of religious liberty was soon disrupted, however, as the Roman Catholic Church reasserted its power. The Battle of White Mountain in 1620 saw the defeat of a badly organized Protestant army at the hands of the new  Bohemian king and Emperor, Ferdinand II. A harsh Counter-reformation followed, during which the Czech lands came under the jurisdiction of Rome and the pro-Catholic Habsburg dynasty. 

Jan Amos Komenský

A key figure in the Unity of the Brethren’s twilight was its last bishop, Jan Amos Komenský (also called Comenius, 1592-1670), who was expelled from his country and mostly lived in exile. A great theologian and educator, he maintained contact with the French philosopher René Descartes, and was even asked to become the first president of Harvard University. Due to the difficult situation in Europe at that point, he instead worked in Sweden, England, and the Netherlands. He is still renowned as the pioneer of child centered education. 

Komenský was convinced that we must proclaim the Gospel as much as possible. He desired this so deeply that he said that “even Jesuits”—who were then leading the Counter-reformation in the Czech lands—“will be able to co-operate for the sake of the Gospel. Let us do something together.” This was extraordinary given that the brutal Thirty Years’ War was then under way in Europe. Yet Komenský’s vision was clear: For the sake of the Gospel we have to cooperate, even with our enemies. Komenský was also somewhat critical of the “Second Reformation,” as he was unable to accept the fragmentation of Protestantism. His theology did not permit any period of church history to be made the standard for all time. Komenský and his predecessors called all denominations (including the Roman Catholic Church) Unities. According to their progressive ecumenical understanding of ecclesiology, the Church is a single Body of Christ consisting of Christians of various denominations. 

Habsburg subjugation of Czech Protestantism continued for over 150 years and almost destroyed the legacy of the Unity of the Brethren. In 1727, however, a spiritual revival took place on lands belonging to Count Nikolaus von Zinzendorf, who had given refuge to exiles fleeing Moravia and Bohemia for neighboring Saxony. Over the next twenty years, the Czech Brethren living on Count von Zinzendorf ’s estates were able to send out some 200 missionaries, who went as far afield as Africa, India, and the Americas. Even today, you can meet people in remote parts of Africa who say they are Moravian!

2015 anniversary

The year 2015 marked the 600th anniversary of Jan Hus’s execution. This was a significant event for the whole of the Czech Republic, including secular society. We began to prepare many years earlier, and for the first time were able to commemorate our Hussite heritage together with the Catholics. In 1993 a special interconfessional symposium on Jan Hus took place in Bayreuth, Germany, followed by a delegation of church leaders and historians to Rome, for a meeting with Pope John Paul II. In 1999 a further symposium took place at which the Pope described Jan Hus as a reformer, and expressed “deep regret for the cruel death” inflicted upon him. [See “Address of the Holy Father to an International Symposium on John Hus, 17 December 1999, http://www. vatican.va/content/john-paul-ii/en/ speeches/1999/december/documents/ hf_jp-ii_spe_17121999_jan-hus.html.] 

As 2000-2009 president of the Ecumenical Council of Churches in the Czech Republic—of which the Czech Catholic Bishops’ Conference is an associate member—I have found our relationship to be strong at grassroots level. During the Communist period, some of our pastors shared prison cells with Roman Catholic priests, and they were also held together in Nazi concentration camps during the Second World War. There, they prayed together and supported one another, and so became friends. During the 2015 commemoration of Jan Hus, we were finally able to apologize publicly for all the terrible things in our bloody history. It has helped us to heal.

Pavel Černý is a retired pastor in the Church of the Brethren (Cirkev Bratrská). He was formerly president of the denomination and still teaches practical theology and missiology at the Evangelical Theological Seminary, Prague.

Hus and Belarus

The figure of Jan Hus continues to resonate with Protestants in Central and Eastern Europe. In Belarus, Baptist Sergiy Melyanets published his poem “Auto-da-fé”—dedicated to the memory of Jan Hus—on 7th August 2020. It concludes:

The holy one is praying: “Forgive them, Father, for they know not what they do.” Sola Scriptura, sola fide, solus Christus. The principles of faith. The foundations of life. The answer to the question: What is it worth sacrificing life at the stake for? Standing stock-still on the scaffold in the fiery haze.

On 10th August Sergiy Melyanets was dragged from his car, beaten, and given electric shocks by riot police suppressing pro-democracy demonstrations in the Belarusian capital, Minsk. (See “Belarus: Systematic Beatings, Torture of Protesters,” Human Rights Watch, 15 September 2020, https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/09/15/belarus-systematic-beatings-tortureprotesters.)